Organisations culture Essay

1.Executive summary In this paper I look at how organisations develop ‘culture’ and how this culture can be created, manipulated and changed my management. I also look at what other factors can change and affect a companies’ culture. The paper will take the following format. A definition of culture and the problems associated with its definition. I then look at how organisationl culture develops, with an explanation of the levels of cultural analysis, a look at the various different types of culture, and the role of the leader/manager in creating the organisations culture. How culture can be changed and the skills and actions needed by management to successfully implement a cultural change. I then finish with a conclusion. 2.Defining organisational culture What is organisational culture? This it has been found, is not an easy question to answer. The concept of culture has its roots in anthropology, the study of human affairs. In this context, culture has been used to designate two different things. A tribe or a social group is studied as a ‘culture’ that produces and may have cultural artefacts. The second use of the term refers to aspects within a given culture, such as customs, rituals, knowledge and so on. (Sackman, S, 1991). In the context of organisational culture it is largely the second approach that is studied. Although people may not be aware consciously of culture, it still has a persuasive influence over their behaviour and actions. (Mullins, L, 2002). This statement explains that although we may not have the knowledge that we belong to a certain cultural group it will still have an impact on our behaviour and in an organisational sense, our working lives. The culture concept began to affect organisational thinking in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s. Although is it evident in ideas from a number of earlier writers, for example Bernard (1938) and Jacques (1952). If we look at a number of different of organisations it is clear to see that ‘things are done differently’. This idea applies to all organisations, even in similar companies that are operating in the same industry. Tesco provides  much the same service as Sainsburys, but on close inspection we would be able to see the differences in which the two companies operate. It is more difficult however to describe how things are ‘done differently’, or why the company ‘feels’ different. A major problem with the concept of culture is the degree to which individuals, organisations or entire communities display characteristics which are consistent within it. (Martin, J, 2001). Do all British people display characteristics that are consistent with British culture? It is clear that although there are many similarities in the behaviour of people within a defined culture, that individual differences provide some variety. The same must also be assumed in the context of organisational culture. Another problem with finding a definition for organisational culture is the sheer number of definitions that already exist. Kroeber and Kluckhorn list more than 250 definitions of culture, that include components such as ideas, concepts, ideologies values, attitudes, goals, norms, learned behaviours, symbols, rites, rituals, customs, myths, habits or artefacts such as tools and other material representations. (Sackman, S, 1991). This inevitably leads to confusion amongst researchers as to a universal definition of organisational culture. The term ‘the way we do things around here’ (Deal and Kennedy, 1988) is often accepted as an operational definition of organisational culture. However this offers little in terms of the content of culture. Kilman et al. (1985) suggests ‘culture is the reflects the ideologies, shared philosophies, values beliefs, assumptions, attitudes, expectations, and norms of an organisation’ 3.Levels of culture Now we have looked at a definition of organisational culture we should look deeper into what develops and makes up an organisations culture. According to Schein (1985), organisational culture is made up of three levels. Visible organisational structures and processes (Hard to decipher) Strategies, goals, philosophies (Espoused justification) Unconscious, taken for granted beliefs, habits of perception, thought thought and feeling (Ultimate source of values and action) The Levels of Organizational Culture, Schein, E (1985) Artefacts These form the surface level of culture. They include all the things that a person sees, hears and has contact with. In an organisation it would be the architecture of the environment such as the management hierarchy, its technology, its creations and products and its style in terms of manners of address both up and down the hierarchy, dress codes and formal procedures. Schein identifies the most important point of this level being that artefacts are easy to identify but hard to decipher. Two organisations may well have the same system in operation but they can mean different things in terms of the culture of the organisation. Schein puts his point into an example by saying both the Egyptians and Mayas built large pyramids, but they were tombs in one culture and temples in the other. This point is contradicted by Gagliardi (1990) who says ‘ones own response to physical artefacts such as buildings and other office layouts can lead to the identification of major images and root metaphors that reflect the deepest levels of culture’. This is supported by my own experience. I have worked in a supermarket, an  organisation with a tall management hierarchy. Many of the artefacts of the organisation gave the impression of a very formal culture. A strict uniformed dress code was in place, with management wearing different colours from subordinates, and formal forms of address being used. The company was also largely bureaucratic with countless forms to be filled out a large numbers of standard procedures in place. One person however may look at a very informal organisation and class it as inefficient and unproductive, while another may class it as innovative and free from unnecessary bureaucracy, this depends on the individuals previous preconceptions about the artefacts that are present. Values Values are usually one persons beliefs about a given situation. If a manager believes that at a certain time of the year his/her company should run at a lower capacity due to demand etc. This is attributed to his personal values. Only once these values are acted on, successfully implemented and accepted by the organisation do they become transformed into underlying assumptions. From a marketing perspective, some of these values may remain conscious and may be explicitly stated in a company’s mission statement as the â€Å"dominant values of the organisation† (Deal and Kennedy, 1982). Only values that are concrete that can be physically and socially validated, they are confirmed by the group’s experiences, go through his transformation process. Underlying assumptions If a solution to a problem works frequently then it is often accepted as a rule for solving the given problem. The power of culture comes forth because these assumptions are shared within the group and are therefore mutually reinforced. These assumptions can often cause problems when someone new, with a different set of underlying assumptions from a previous culture, joins the organisation. As humans we like stability. Any decision which challenges or questions an underlying assumption, such as changing a costing method, or a method of production, will likely lead to anxiety and defensiveness within the organisation. A skill required by managers wishing to change aspects of an organisations culture is to recognise this connection, to get to the deeper levels of culture, and to deal with the anxiety that results when these assumptions are changed. The three stages are linked constantly together. ‘Basic assumptions are treated as the essence- what culture really is; and values and behaviours are treated as observed manifestations of the culture essence.’ (Mullins, 2002). We are able to see now how culture is developed in term of ‘values’ being acted upon and accepted by the organisation, these values being transformed into ‘underlying assumptions’ and the artefacts of the organisation being formed by the interpretation of these underlying assumptions. 4.Types of organisational culture Handy (1993) identifies four types of organisational culture. Power culture Power cultures revolve around a focal person or small group, this person or group has absolute power throughout the entire organisation. It is often found in small entrepreneurial companies, and relies largely on trust and communication. It is normally non-bureaucratic with few formal procedures. The success of the organisation depends largely on the skill of the focal person or group. Role culture Role cultures are often largely bureaucratic, it is often described as a small number of senior managers resting on the strong pillars of the various functions of the organisation. Each person has a specified role within a function of the organisation which in turn has a specified role within  organisation as a whole. These roles are expected to be adhered to and it is rare for an individual or function to deviate into different areas of the business. Predictability and stability are two main themes within this type of culture. This type of culture often develops in large companies with large numbers of staff and a tall management hierarchy. Companies with this type of culture tend to have steady objectives and operate in largely predictive markets. Again this relates back my own experience as this type of culture is largely prevalent in supermarket chains. Task culture Task cultures recognise the objectives and goals of the organisation as being paramount. Handy describes this as a ‘net’ or ‘matrix’ culture. Power is often shared by a team of experts who are highly manoeuvrable to suit the needs of the organisation. It largely found in team or project based organisations such as consultancy firms or engineers. Person Culture Person cultures are largely individual orientated. Any structure is solely suited to aid the individuals within the organisation. There is no specific power structure with individuals having complete power over their own operations. Examples of this would be barristers chambers, architects, business consultants, individuals that have come together to share resources such as office space and admin support. Some people are more suited to different types of cultures than others. Where one person will be happy working in an organisation with a task culture, he/she may feel constricted and undervalued in a role culture environment. Another person may be the opposite and may feel secure within a largely role orientated company. An important skill for managers is being able firstly to identify the type of culture his/her organisation is operating in and then to hire the correct people for that culture, this helps in reducing any anxiety caused by  changes to underlying assumptions previously discussed. There are many other models of the types of organisational culture available to the researcher. Writings by Deal and Kennedy on the generic cultures, Ouchi’s type Z companies, and several more. The focus of this paper however is on the development and change of culture and this will be explored in the following sections. 5. Factors affecting the development of culture The role of the founder ‘Organisations do not form accidentally or spontaneously. They are â€Å"created† because one or more individuals perceive that the coordinated and concerted action of a number of people can accomplish something that an individual cannot’ (Frost,p et al. 1991) At the beginning of an organisations life the founder often has complete control over the organisation. He/she will make most of not all of the important decisions over all areas of the organisations operations. ‘Because they had the original idea, founders will typically have their own notion, based on their own cultural history and personality of how to get the idea fulfilled. (Schein, 1985). Since the founder started the group it is natural to assume that he/she also impose their thoughts, values and assumptions on the group. As new members enter the group the founders assumption will be changed and modified to suit the new organisation, but will always have the biggest impact on what becomes the organisational culture. This has large implications for the future of the organisation. If the company was founded by an informal, easy going type of person then this is the type of organisational culture that is likely to develop. Similarly if the organisation is founded by a formal, autocratic person, the company will likely develop this kind of organisational culture. This will continue to form the organisations culture and have a large influence on the actions of the company even if new leaders are brought in to the organisation. The assumptions of the founder will already be deep routed and form the basis of  the culture. Size Size affects an organisation because of the formality that is often required in larger companies. A large company with many levels of management and a large number of functions or even businesses cannot realistically operate on an informal level. This has implications for the culture of the organisation. Technology If the company uses highly technological systems and procedures in its operations ie pharmaceuticals, the cultural emphasis will be on the technical skills of its employees. A company in the service sector may have a cultural slant towards customer service. Goals and objectives What the organisation wants to achieve will also affect culture. An organisation that wishes to become a market leader may inherit cultural values that reflect that attitude, i.e. company image focused, or have a heavy marketing orientation. Environment There are many environmental factors that can affect an organisations culture, stakeholders, competitors, government etc. etc. How a company chooses to interact with each of these environmental forces will determine how the organisations culture develops. People The preferred style of work amongst both senior management and employees has a large effect on the organisations culture. If senior management attempt to implement a culture that is unacceptable to employees a reaction will  follow, industrial action, low motivation, poor productivity etc. Likewise if employees attempt to force management into following their own culture then a negative reaction will also result. i.e. relocation or the replacement of workers. (Section taken from Martin, J, Organizational Behaviour, 2001) Senior management need to realise the factors that affect an organisations culture and attempt to you analyse the likely impact major business decisions may have. Failure to do may have negative consequences for the culture and hence the success of the company. 6.Cultural change, the role of management â€Å"There is some considerable debate as to whether changing something as deep-seated as corporate culture is possible’ Writers with this view usually focus on the deeper levels of culture, the underlying assumptions. Turner (1986) supports this view by suggesting that it would not be possible to manipulate it accurately because it becomes such an integral part of the organisations fabric. Because these are taken for granted assumptions about organisational life, members cannot envision any other way of operating. Those advocating corporate culture usually focus on the surface elements of culture, the artefacts. These are more easily changed than the deeper routed assumptions. Some writers have argued that unless the deeper assumptions are changed that the company will revert back to old ways of operating. Despite these arguments there is wide consensus that cultural change should only be attempted as a last resort and after other avenues have been sought. (Cummings, Worley, 1993) A primary task of management is to control the activity of employees to best serve defined organizational interests. They can achieve this control using formalized rules (bureaucratic mechanisms), economic rewards and sanctions or values and norms about how the work is to be done (â€Å"clan† or cultural  mechanisms) (Wilkins and Ouchi, 1983; cited by Sinclair, A, 1993). This statement reflects the common view that organisational culture needs to be aligned with organisational strategy if the company is to be successful. Many companies have now realised the importance of developing strategies harmonious with the organisations culture. Sometimes however culture needs to be changed, if circumstances require an organisation to follow a particular strategic route or a significant change affects the organisation i.e. market forces, government action, rapid growth etc. then the culture will have to be adjusted to suit the strategy and external environment. Managers require many skills in order to successfully change an organisations culture. It is a lengthy process that is full of danger. Staff need to be reassured and convinced that the new culture will work, otherwise defence mechanisms and the problems discussed earlier may begin show. The following guidelines to changing culture have been cited in (Cummings, T, Worley, C, Organization development and change, 1993) 1.Clear strategic vision- the firm needs to have a clear view of its operational strategy if culture is to be changed. Managers need to know where the company is now and where it is planning on going. 2.Top-management commitment- cultural change must be managed from the top of the organisation. Senior managers need to be committed to the new culture. They must have the staying to see the changes through. 3.Symbolic leadership- executives must communicate the new culture through their own actions. Their behaviour needs to symbolise the behaviours and actions that are being sought in the entire organisation. In an example given in the text, the CEO of Dana Corporation Rene McPherson threw the companies multi-volume policy manuals into a waste paper basket during a meeting and replaced them with a one page set of principles. 4.Supporting organisational change- the culture change must also be supported by changes in the organisational structure and operations, ‘the artefacts’ as have already been discussed. They can get people aware of the behaviours required in the new culture for the organisation to be successful. 5.Selection and socialization of newcomers and termination of deviants. One of the most important methods in changing an organisations culture is hiring the right people. This is particularly prominent in management positions where the manager has influence over the behaviour of subordinates. 6.Ethical and legal sensibility- sometimes when culture change happens some employees feel they are being hard done by, maybe due to a change in roles, due a promise made during the transition that has been fulfilled. This may lead to legal battles and or resignations from the company. These steps demonstrate some of the ways that managers can influence and successfully change an organisations culture. There is of course no universal solution to changing or influencing culture, all companies are different and individual approaches are more than likely necessary for cultural change to be successful. An example of cultural change is given in (Martin, J, Organizational Behaviour, 2001). In this case study of a motor car dealership in the UK, the newly appointed managing director wanted to change the company culture. The existing culture was largely autocratic with instructions coming down the hierarchy and staff carrying out these instructions. She wanted to change the culture so that the company has a more had team based approach with decision making at team level and initiative being used at all levels of the organisation. To do this she had to use drastic tactics such as showing staff a video of disappointed customers and even accepting a loss in revenue while the changes were being made. Along with this approach she introduced many changed such as more staff training, revision of pay schemes, continuous improvement groups, multi-functional teams etc. After three years the culture change was deemed complete and she could turn her hand to the future of the company. This case study highlights the often drastic measures and level of commitment that is required by managers to introduce a culture change to an organisation. 7.Conclusion It is relatively clear that organisational culture exists and that it plays a huge part in an organisations actions and the behaviour of its employees. Very few writers now argue with this point. I have discussed how culture develops in an organisation and the different levels and types of culture that emerge. Referring back to the second part of the original question, we have seen how managers can influence and attempt to change an organisations culture and the various problems that are encountered in this process. Although there are debates as to whether an organisations culture can or cannot be changed it would seem that there is a mid-point between the two arguments. There are examples of successful culture changes and I have given one in the text. It is clear that if properly organised and implemented a cultural change can be achieved. However we cannot assume that the culture has been changed all together. If the underlying assumptions are as strong as Schein and other writers claim then these will always affect the company culture in some shape or form. If the new culture is not carefully controlled could reappear. To conclude I would say, although cultural can be changed to suit the environment and organisational strategy, that managers should be cautious take into account the underlying principles that govern the organisational culture. 8.References Martin, J, (2001), Organizational Behaviour, 2nd edn, Thomson Learning Mullins, L, (2002), Management and Organisational Behaviour, 2nd edn, Financial Times, Prentice Hall Schein, E, (1992), Organizational Culture and Leadership, 2nd edn, Jossey-Bass Inc. Cummings, T and Worley, C, (1993), Organization Development and Change, 5th edn , West Publishing Company Sackman, S, (1991), Cultural knowledge in Organizations Exploring the Collective Mind, Sage Publications Frost, P et al. (1991), Reframing Organizational Culture, Sage Publications Sinclair, A, (1993), Approaches to organisational culture and ethics, Journal of Business Ethics, Dordrecht: Jan 1993. Vol. 12, Iss. 1; pg. 63, 11 pgs Wilson, A (2001), Understanding organisational culture and the implications for corporatemarketing, European Journal of Marketing, Bradford, Vol. 35, Iss. 3/4; pg. 353

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Institutionalized Discrimination toward Mexicans in America from 1900-1950 - Essay Example Mexican Americans have been present in the Americas long before that fateful day on the 4th of July when history took a turn like no other. However, as the 20th century drew closer, the implications of the Mexican American War began to come forth in the form of prejudice against racial hatred against the Mexican Americans who chose to enter America and those who were residing the part of Mexico that fell within US borders at the end of the Mexican American War. The influx of Mexican immigrants into America continued to increase over time and there came a point at the beginning of the 20th century where it became clear that Mexican Americans desired to become a fully functioning part of American society. However, the difference between the two societies did not allow Mexican Americans to settle in America with ease. The Anglo Americans refused to accept the Mexican Americans and the racial hatred and prejudice that had been lying low for the last few decades began to become evident in the treatment to which Anglo Americans subjected the Mexican Americans. After World War II, Mexican Americans began to take an active stance against racism and prejudice on the grounds of ethnicity. This was because they began to worry about the well-being of their future generations and desired them to have significantly better lives (Divide, 2008). The Mexican American parents did not want their children to go through the same difficulties that they had gone through in coal mines and assembly plants. In order to build a better future for their children, Mexican Americans began to make use the justice system to acquire the rights that they had been refused in the past (Terriquez, 2010). An example of institutionalized discrimination against Mexican Americans can be found in the fact that the California school districts made it mandatory

Should We or Should We Not Write Essays in Science Class Essay Example for Free

Should We or Should We Not Write Essays in Science Class Essay A Science class is not an appropriate course for a student to consume their needs of time into an assigned essay, as an English class would purposely cover. It is not a place where a student should be assigned to write an essay. For that matter, students essentially have an English class. Science class is a course where students learn science related topics through observation and experimentation. Purposely, time for a science class is spent doing experimentations where students learn more efficiently. A Science class should not assign essays to their students because their understanding of the curriculum is from observations and calculations from experiments. This makes it inappropriate because there is no reason for the students to be doing them. Whether a student needs a science class for the specific career they want to pursue in the future or they need it for credits, assigning an essay to a student would be a waste of time. Students will understand by observing and taking notes about the specifics they had learn. Not by writing essays. Essays have no purpose for a science course, because students already have an English course to write essays. Essays are covered in an English class, and there is no reason why a student should be writing them in another class. Time in a science class is clearly spent doing experiments and observation. Writing essays in a science class accomplishes no purpose either because the time could be better spent doing experiments where the students understand and learn more. Essays are written as an understanding for a certain topic, but in a science class basically all the understanding comes from observations. Completing essays will clearly be a waste of time for the class. For a science class, students considerably don’t have time to write an essay for another course like science. I personally get homework every-single day and it takes me an average of 3 hours to complete all my assignments. I am constantly staying up late, always trying to finish my homework. I come home at six o’ clock everyday because that’s when my mom picks me after my extra-curricular activities. Most students even have more extra-curricular activities than me. Concerning all the clubs most schools have, and jobs people have. It’s already time-consuming enough to fill our own needs with fun-activities, other than homework. A science course should not assign essays to their students because there is no purpose, it’s not appropriate, and it consumes more time out of a student. Science is not even in the same field as English so why would the curriculum of an essay which is under the English field relate to Science. It just serves no correct purpose to write an essay for a science class because it wouldn’t give any new understanding to a student. A student is placed in an English course and Science course for separate reasons, and because of that an essay should not be covered in a Science class as it already is covered in an English class.

Risk Factors For Neutropenic Fever Health And Social Care Essay

Risk Factors For Neutropenic Fever Health And Social Care Essay Cancer patients, who receive cytotoxic antineoplastic therapy sufficient to harmfully affect myelopoiesis and the developmental integrity of the gastrointestinal mucosa, are at high risk for invasive infection due to the translocation of colonizing bacteria and/or fungi across intestinal mucosal surfaces. Since the level of the neutrophil-mediated component of the inflammatory response are typically attenuated in neutropenic patients 1, physical findings of exudate, fluctuation, ulceration or fissure, local heat, swelling, and regional adenopathy are all less prevalent in the neutropenic patient1. Thus, fever might be the earliest and only sign of a severe underlying infection 2. With the increasing use of myelo-suppressive agents in the treatment of neoplastic and nonneoplastic diseases, the increased rate of infection in patients with neutropenia has been clearly established 3. Sadly, many of these commonly fatal infections go unrecognized until autopsy 4. Therefore, in order to avoid unfortunate outcomes such as sepsis and possibily death, it is critical to recognize neutropenic fever early and to start empiric systemic antibacterial therapy promptly. It is also crucial to assess the risk of serious complications in patients with febrile neutropenia, since this assessment will dictate the approach to therapy, including the need for inpatient admission, IV antibiotics, and prolonged hospitalization 2. An overview of the concepts related to neutropenic fever, including definitions of fever and neutropenia and categories of risk are reviewed here. The risk assessment and the diagnostic approach to patients presenting with febrile neutropenia are also discussed. This topic also provides a general approach to the management of neutropenic fever syndromes in cancer patients at high and low risk for complications, and the prophylaxis of infections in such patients. DEFINITIONS Fever: The definition of fever as an indicator of infection in patients with neutropenia has varied. Carl Wunderlich proposed in 1868, that the mean normal body temperature was 37 ¿Ã‚ ½C (98.6 ¿Ã‚ ½F) with an upper limit of normal of 38 ¿Ã‚ ½C (100.4 ¿Ã‚ ½F), above this limit, fever was defined 5,6. Although it has been observed that there is a range of normal body temperatures, according to a survey of 270 medical professionals, 75 percent of subjects reported that normal body temperature is 37 ¿Ã‚ ½C (98.6 ¿Ã‚ ½F)5,7. While, a survey of members of the British Society for Hematology concerning their institutional definitions of fever identified ten definitions of fever, ranging from a single temperature >37.5 ¿Ã‚ ½C to either a single temperature >39 ¿Ã‚ ½C or two successive temperatures >38.4 ¿Ã‚ ½C 5,6. Despite these beliefs, the mean oral temperature was reported as 36.8 ¿Ã‚ ½0.4 ¿Ã‚ ½C (98.2 ¿Ã‚ ½0.7 ¿Ã‚ ½F) with a range of 35.6 ¿Ã‚ ½C (96.0 ¿Ã‚ ½F) to 38.2 ¿Ã‚ ½C (100.8 ¿Ã‚ ½F), after observation of 148 healthy adults ages between 18 and 40 years 6. The definition of fever in neutropenic patients, according to The Infectious Diseases Society of America, was proposed as a single oral temperature of >38.3 ¿Ã‚ ½C (101 ¿Ã‚ ½F) or a temperature of >38.0 ¿Ã‚ ½C (100.4 ¿Ã‚ ½F) sustained for >1 hour2. Similar definitions have been provided from South America, Europe, and Asia. It has been approved to use this definition of fever in neutropenic patients9 ¿Ã‚ ½11. Neutropenia: The definition of neutropenia differs from institution to institution, but it is usually defined as an absolute neutrophil count (ANC) The absolute neutrophil count (ANC) is defined as the product of the white blood cell count (WBC) and the percentage of polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs) and bands: ANC = WBC (cells/microL) x percent (PMNs + bands)  ¿Ã‚ ½ 100 Based upon the level of ANC, neutropenia is categorized as mild, moderate or severe. An absolute neutrophil count between 1000 and 1500/microL corresponds to mild neutropenia. While, an ANC between 500 and 1000/microL corresponds to moderate neutropenia. Severe neutropenia is usually defined as an ANC As the neutrophil count drops below 500 cells/microL, the risk of clinically serious infection increases and is higher in those with a prolonged duration of neutropenia (>7 days). However, the risk is also related to the adequacy of the marrow reserve pool of granulocytes. Two terms, leukopenia and granulocytopenia are often used interchangeably with neutropenia, although they are somewhat different:  ¿Ã‚ ½ Leukopenia is defined as a low total white blood cell count that may be due to any cause such as lymphopenia and/or neutropenia; yet, almost all leukopenic patients are neutropenic since the amount of neutrophils is so much higher than the amount of lymphocytes.  ¿Ã‚ ½ Granulocytopenia is defined as a reduced absolute number of all circulating cells of the granulocyte series (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils); yet, almost all granulocytopenic patients are neutropenic since the amount of neutrophils is so much higher than the amount of eosinophils and basophils.  ¿Ã‚ ½ Agranulocytosis is defined as the absence of granulocytes, but the term is often inaccurately used to denote severe neutropenia. CATEGORIES OF RISK RISK FACTORS FOR NEUTROPENIC FEVER The risk factors for the development of neutropenic fever can be divided into three sub-categories including patient-related, disease-related and anti-cancer treatment-related predictors. Patient-related predictors include: age = 65 years, female sex, high body surface area, poor performance status based upon preexisting active comorbidities (e.g., cardiovascular, pulmonary, renal, endocrine, etc.) and poor nutritional status12 ¿Ã‚ ½19. Disease-related predictors include: Elevated lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in patients with lymphoreticular diseases, bone marrow failure due to replacement of hematopoietic tissue by anomalous tissue which is know as myelophthisis19, lymphopenia20,21 and advanced stage of the underlying malignancy 13,16,20 ¿Ã‚ ½22 Treatment-related predictors include: administration of the planned dose-intensity of high-dose chemotherapy regimens15,20 ¿Ã‚ ½23 and failure to administer prophylactic hematopoietic growth factor support to patients receiving high-risk regimens14,21. RISK OF SERIOUS COMPLICATIONS This risk assessment is essential to determine the management of patients, including the need for inpatient admission, IV antibiotics, and prolonged hospitalization. High-risk patients require hospital admission for IV antibiotics, and often a prolonged length of stay. In contrast, low-risk patients may be treated as outpatients with oral antibiotic after a short period of observation or hospitalization. Definitions of low-risk and high-risk patients: The Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) use different definitions in their guidelines:  ¿Ã‚ ½ Low-risk patients are those who are expected to have neutropenia (absolute neutrophil count [ANC]  ¿Ã‚ ½ High-risk patients are those expected to have neutropenia (ANC 7 days. While, neutropenic febrile patients with comorbidities or evidence of significant hepatic or renal impairment are considered high risk, regardless of the duration of neutropenia. Some experts have identified patients at high risk as those who are expected to have profound neutropenia (ANC = 100 cells / microliter) for > 7 days on the basis of experience that these patients are more likely to have serious and potentially fatal complications2,24. Nevertheless, formal studies to clearly differentiate between patients with a neutrophil count Some studies combine these groups to define high-risk patients. Deep prolonged neutropenia (ANC = 100 cells / microL expected to last > 7 days) is more likely to occur in the pre-transplant hematopoietic cell transplantation (allogeneic in particular) and in patients undergoing induction chemotherapy for acute leukemia. Risk based on underlying disease Patients who suffer from neutropenia after induction chemotherapy for acute myelogenous leukemia or as part of the conditioning regimen for allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HCT) are at a high-risk for serious infections. Other factors that are considered as high-risk status include gastrointestinal and oral mucositis, uncontrolled cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, advanced age and poor functional status. Patients receiving consolidation chemotherapy for leukemia or undergoing autologous HCT may also have long periods of neutropenia, but seem to be at somewhat lower risk, especially if they received prophylactic hematopoietic growth factors. In contrast, patients with solid tumors are mostly at low risk for serious infections. Guidelines An assessment of risk (high versus low-risk) for medical complications related to neutropenic fever should be obtained at the initial assessment of neutropenic fever episode. The Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), the European Society for Medical Oncology (ESMO), the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) as well as the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO)2,24,25 , has recommended this. The IDSA and ASCO defined high-risk neutropenic patients as those who are expected to have profound neutropenia (ANC = 100 cells / microliter) for > 7 days or those with evidence of current comorbidities or hepatic or renal dysfunction2,24 . The National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) has used similar criteria for definition, but also includes a category of intermediate risk [21]. Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer (MASCC) risk index that can be used as an alternative to clinical criteria, is a validated tool to assess the risk of medical complications associated with neutropenic fever (calculator 2)26 ¿Ã‚ ½29 . IDSA Risk assessment: The Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) has established the following criteria for the definition of high risk or low risk patients with neutropenic fever 2: High-risk febrile neutropenic patients are defined as having one or more of the following criteria: ? Profound neutropenia (ANC = 100 cells / microliter) expected to last for > 7 days. ? Proof of current comorbidities, such as (but not limited to): ? Hemodynamic instability ? Oral mucositis limiting swallowing or gastrointestinal tract mucositis causing severe diarrhea ? Gastrointestinal symptoms such as abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting or diarrhea ? Changes in neurological status or mental appearance of new onset ? Intravascular catheter infection ? New pulmonary infiltrates or hypoxia ? Underlying chronic lung disease ? Signs of hepatic insufficiency (serum transaminase> 5 times normal) or renal insufficiency (creatinine clearance Low-risk febrile neutropenic patients are expected to have a relatively short duration of neutropenia for 7 days or less, with an absolute neutrophil count (ANC) Patients with evidence of severe sepsis (sepsis syndrome in end organ dysfunction) should be considered at high risk and managed as in-patients with initial intravenous antibacterial empirical treatment. While, patients with signs of septic shock should be managed in an intensive care unit based upon goal-oriented therapy30 . NCCN risk assessment The National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) has developed certain criteria to classify patients as high risk or low risk, which must be performed during the initial evaluation [21]. High-risk febrile neutropenic patients are those having one or more of the following criteria: [21] ? The patients are hospitalized at the time of the development of fever ? Evidence of significant medical comorbidity or the presence of clinical instability ? Expected profound prolonged neutropenia (ANC = 100 cells / microliter expected to last> 7 days) ? Hepatic insufficiency (serum transaminase> 5 times normal) or renal insufficiency (creatinine clearance ? Any patient with leukemia not in complete remission, or any non-leukemic patient with signs of disease progression after more than two courses of chemotherapy. ? Any complex infection such as pneumonia at clinical presentation ? Alemtuzumab (antineoplastic agent) in the last two months ? Grade 3 or 4 mucositis ? MASCC risk index score Low-risk febrile neutropenic patients are those who do not meet any of the criteria for high-risk described above and meet most of the criteria as follows [21]: ? Ambulatory status at the time of the development of fever ? No acute comorbid illness requiring hospitalization and close monitoring ? Expected short duration of severe neutropenia (ANC = 100 cells / microliter should last for 7 days or less) ? Good performance status (Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group [ECOG] 0-1 (Table 2)) ? No hepatic or renal insufficiency ? MASCC risk index score of = 21 risk index Intermediate risk neutropenic patients are defined as those meeting one or more of following criteria: [21] ? Patients undergoing autologous HCT ? Lymphoma ? Chronic lymphocytic leukemia ? Multiple Myeloma ? Patients receiving purine analogue therapy ? The expected duration of neutropenia is 7 to 10 days For patients at intermediate risk, the NCCN recommends consideration of fluoroquinolone prophylaxis. Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer (MASCC) score As an alternative to the IDSA and NCCN risk assessments described above, the MASCC risk index is validated for assessing the risk of medical complications associated with febrile neutropenia. Using the MASCC risk index, the following features are assessed and given a weighted score2,26 : ? Burden of disease (clinical condition of the patient at the time of presentation with neutropenic fever): ? No symptoms or mild symptoms (5 points) ? Moderate symptoms (3 points) ? Severe symptoms or dying (0 point) ? No hypotension (systolic blood pressure> 90 mmHg) (5 points) ? No chronic obstructive pulmonary disease COPD (4 points) ? Solid tumor or hematologic malignancy without prior history of fungal infections (4 points) ? No dehydration that requires parenteral fluids (3 points) ? Ambulatory status at the time of the onset of neutropenic fever syndrome (3 points) ? Age The highest possible score is 26. Patients with a score = 21 are considered to be at low risk of serious medical complications, and for whom outpatient treatment with oral empirical antimicrobial can be safe and effective29 . While, patients with a score The MASCC risk index has classified 98% of patients as low-risk and 86% as high risk with a sensitivity and specificity of 95%, and positive and negative predictive value of 98, and 86 percent, respectively 28. Patients with complicated infections have been reclassified as high risk for serious medical complications, which further increased the predictive value of the model. Complicated infections include non-necrotizing skin or soft tissue infection (SSTI) of >5 cm diameter, necrotizing SSTI of any size, grade 2 oral mucositis, sepsis syndrome or the presence of a visceral site of infection. [28]. The classification error rate has been 10 to 29 percent. [4] In addition, the MASCC risk index can predict the probability of death as follows:27 ? Score = 15: 29 % ? Score = 15 but ? Score = 21: 2 % The MASCC risk index has been criticized for the lack of a standard definition of this criterion the burden of febrile neutropenia, which could be a source of confusion2, or it could be interpreted differently by different clinicians. I addition, the MASCC risk index does not include the duration of neutropenia as a criterion, though it is considered as an important predictor of risk2. The MASCC risk index has been also criticized because it was developed using heterogeneous patient populations; thus, it might not function optimally in all populations. For example, in a retrospective study of patients with solid tumors who seemed to be clinically stable, the MASCC risk index had a low sensitivity to detect complications (36 percent)31. The low sensitivity was likely to be attributed to the fact that patients were all outpatients, and the rates of hypotension, dehydration and invasive fungal infections were low; hence, only three criteria were present to distinguish prognosis. The serious medical complications are provided by the MASCC risk index as follows 26: ? Hypotension defined as systolic blood pressure ? Respiratory failure defined as arterial oxygen pressure ? The admission to ICU ? Disseminated intravascular coagulation ? Presence of confusion, delirium, or altered mental status ? The development of congestive heart failure documented by chest imaging and requiring treatment ? Bleeding diathesis sufficient to require a blood transfusion ? Electrocardiogram changes or arrhythmias requiring treatment ? Renal failure sufficient to require an investigation and / or treatment with IV fluids, dialysis, or other intervention ? Other complications judged serious and clinically significant by the health care team All patients who were treated with systemic antineoplastic therapy six weeks prior to a systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) are assumed to have neutropenic sepsis syndrome until proven otherwise. SIRS is defined by the presence of two or more of the following conditions: temperature >38 ¿Ã‚ ½C or 90/minute, respiratory frequency > 20/minute, PaCO2 Patients presenting with altered mental status, hypotension, hypoxia, oliguria or any other sign of new organ impairment must be managed emergently for severe sepsis. RISK OF TREATMENT FAILURE The risk of failure to respond to initial empirical antibacterial therapy is a composite outcome to be considered clinicians. Treatment failure is proposed if one or more of the following events occur within 30 days after the start of treatment 33,34: ? Persistence, progression or recurrence of signs of infection ? Modification of the initial empirical antibacterial treatment ? Readmission to the hospital for outpatients ? Death Patients with documented clinical or microbiological infections are more likely to be at risk for treatment failure, clinical or microbiological than for unexplained neutropenic fever (39 against 18 percent33. High-risk patients are more likely to be at risk for treatment failure than those with low risk. For example, patients with hematologic malignancies have a higher percentage of treatment failure than those with solid tumors (44 against 18 percent) 33. Observations have shown that among all febrile neutropenic patients at low risk of medical complications, adult patients at higher risk for treatment failure than children with 16% against 5% respectively34. PREVENTION In order to prevent neutropenic fever and infectious complications in patients at increased risk, the administration of an antimicrobial drug should be used as a prophylaxis. Antibacterial prophylaxis Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other gram-negative bacilli is the target of the antibacterial prophylaxis, because these pathogens are virulent and may cause life-threatening infections. INDICATIONS The beneficial effect on clinical outcomes has been sought from the administration of prophylactic antibacterial agents. The fluoroquinolones, levofloxacin (500 mg orally once daily) and ciprofloxacin (500 mg orally twice daily) have been the most studied antibacterial agents. Levofloxacin in particular is preferred in patients at increased risk for oral mucositis-related Streptococcus viridans infection 2. Results have been mixed with respect to effectiveness and have incited concern about toxicities and antibacterial resistance35 ¿Ã‚ ½37. A systematic monitoring of the prevalence of fluoroquinolone resistance among gram-negative bacilli should be done, at the intitutions that use fluoroquinolone prophylaxis. Based upon the available data, high-risk neutropenic patients defined by those who are expected to have an absolute neutrophil count Fluoroquinolone should be used with caution in patients at risk of a prolonged QT interval particularly in those who may require other QT prolonging agents, such as voriconazole. In addition, the potential to promote resistance among gram-negative and gram-positive should be considered when deciding whether to give a fluoroquinolone prophylaxis or not37. Concerns about the possibility of increasing the risk of Clostridium difficile infection has also been present, though this has not been proven in neutropenic patients receiving fluoroquinolone prophylaxis37. The use of prophylactic agents in institutions and geographic areas where the levels of resistance to fluoroquinolones are high is less likely to be efficient36,38.The use of antibacterial prophylaxis varies from one center to another with some centers avoiding such practices. For most patients with chemotherapy-induced neutropenia expected to be of short duration particularly patients with solid tumors, the use of antibacterial prophylaxis is not recommended. TIMING The ideal timing for the initiation and cessation antibacterial prophylaxis has not been sufficiently studied2. Many clinicians begin anti-bacterial prophylaxis, the first day of chemotherapy or the day after the administration of the last dose of chemotherapy cycle. Antibacterial prophylaxis is usually withheld when neutropenia resolves, or when empirical antibacterial regimen is initiated for patients who become febrile during neutropenia. Antifungal prophylaxis Among cancer patients and HCT recipients, a high rate of life-threatening invasive fungal infections such as candidemia has been observed since the late 1980s, which incited interest in antifungal prophylaxis for patients receiving chemotherapy. Antiviral prophylaxis INFLUENZA Annual immunization with an inactivated influenza vaccine is recommended for all cancer patients undergoing treatment2. The influenza vaccine is generally administered >2 weeks before the initiation of chemotherapy or, when circumstances dictate, between chemotherapy cycles and at least seven days after the last cycle. However, the best timing for such immunization has not been established2. All family members and other close contacts should get annual immunization too. HSV and VZV Reactivation of herpes simplex virus (HSV-1 and HSV-2) and varicella-zoster virus (VZV) occur commonly in HCT recipients who are not receiving prophylaxis and are important causes of morbidity. However, reactivation of both HSV and VZV infections can be effectively prevented with antiviral prophylaxis. Antiviral prophylaxis with acyclovir (400 mg orally three to four times daily or 800 mg orally twice daily) or valacyclovir (500 mg orally once or twice daily) is recommended in all patients who are seropositive for HSV and who are undergoing allogeneic HCT or induction chemotherapy for acute leukemia39. Antiviral prophylaxis with acyclovir or valacyclovir is also recommended in all HCT recipients who are seropositive for VZV. Based upon randomized trials, benefits of antiviral prophylaxis in these populations have been demonstrated; thus, recommended41. CMV CMV prophylaxis is indicated for HCT recipients because they are at are at significant risk for reactivation. In contrast, prophylaxis is not indicated in patients with chemotherapy-induced neutropenia, because it does not occur commonly. HEPATITIS B Antiviral prophylaxis should be considered for the following categories of patients and should be sustained for at least six months after the completion of chemotherapy40 : ? Patients receiving chemotherapy who have a previous history of hepatitis B virus infection, due to the risk of reactivation and hepatic failure. ? Patients with elevated circulating hepatitis B DNA or detectable levels of circulating hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) ? Patients with a previous history of infection with detectable levels of antibody to HBsAg or to hepatitis B core antigen. This has been demonstrated to be able to reduce the risk of reactivation from 24 to 53 percent to 0 to 5 percent. Colony stimulating factors Granulocyte colony stimulating factors (CSFs) have been widely evaluated for prophylactic use following the administration of intensive cytotoxic chemotherapy when neutropenia is expected (primary prophylaxis). CSFs have been also evaluated for their prophylactic use during retreatment after a previous cycle of chemotherapy that caused neutropenic fever (secondary prophylaxis), and have been shown to minimize the extent and duration of severe chemotherapy-induced neutropenia in afebrile patients (afebrile neutropenia). Their use is not recommended in febrile chemotherapy-induced neutropenia2. However, prophylactic use of granulocyte CSFs has not been shown to have an effect on survival in most clinical situations. PRIMARY PROPHYLAXIS Primary prophylaxis denotes the use of granulocyte CSFs during the first cycle of myelosuppressive chemotherapy in order to prevent neutropenic complications. The goal of primary prophylaxis is to decrease the incidence of neutropenic fever and the need for hospitalization, to maintain dose-dense or dose-intense chemotherapy strategies that have survival benefits. Updated 2010 guidelines from the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC), the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), consensus-based guidelines from the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN), and The 2006 guidelines from the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO), all recommend primary prophylaxis when the expected incidence of neutropenic fever is over 20 percent, to reduce the need for hospitalization for antibiotic therapy2,22,41. These recommendations are based upon randomized trials that have shown that primary prophylaxis was cost effective when the risk of neutropenic fever with a specific regimen was over 20 percent42,43 . In contrast, guidelines recommend against the routine use of granulocyte CSFs for primary prophylaxis in adult patients receiving chemotherapy regimens with an anticipated low probability ( However, when the anticipated risk of neutropenic fever is between 10 and 20 percent, the decision of primary prophylaxis should be individualized and may be appropriate in a number of clinical settings in which patients are at risk or increased complications22,41 :  ¿Ã‚ ½ Age >65 years  ¿Ã‚ ½ Preexisting neutropenia  ¿Ã‚ ½ More advanced cancer  ¿Ã‚ ½ Poor performance and/or nutritional status  ¿Ã‚ ½ Renal or hepatic impairment  ¿Ã‚ ½ In the case of epithelial ovarian cancer  ¿Ã‚ ½ Extensive prechemotherapy surgery, particularly if it included a bowel resection. In patients receiving concomitant chemoradiotherapy for either head and neck cancer or lung cancer, the use of granulocyte CSFs has been associated with adverse outcomes, therefore, it better be avoided. Despite the lack of comparative data from randomized controlled trials, that could recommend one CSF over the other for prophylaxis of infection during chemotherapy-induced neutropenia, in practice, most institutions use G-CSF. SECONDARY PROPHYLAXIS Secondary prophylaxis denotes to the use of a granulocyte CSF in subsequent chemotherapy cycles after a prior cycle has caused neutropenic fever. Secondary prophylaxis with CSFs reduces the risk of reccurence of neutropenic fever by approximately one-half 44. ASCO and EORTC guidelines recommend that secondary prophylaxis with granulocyte CSFs be limited to patients for whom primary prophylaxis was not given and who experience a neutropenic complication from a prior cycle of chemotherapy if neutropenic fever would prevent the administration of full dose chemotherapy and if reduced dose intensity might affect treatment outcome22,41 . TIMING G-CSF and GM-CSF therapy is usually initiated 24 to 72 hours after cessation of chemotherapy and is frequently continued until the absolute neutrophil count reaches 5000 to 10,000/microL. A reasonable alternative is continuation until clinically adequate neutrophil recovery. MANAGEMENT Initial Assessment Since, fever might be the first and only sign of infection in a neutropenic patient, its occurrence should be considered a medical emergency. Therefore, empiric broad-spectrum antibacterial therapy should be started immediately after blood cultures have been obtained and before any other investigations have been completed. The Infectious Diseases Working Party of the German Society of Hematology and Oncology and the Northern Ireland Cancer Network has recommended this. It has been recommended that empiric broad-spectrum antibacterial therapy should be administered within 60 minutes of presentation for all patients suffering from neutropenic fever at presentation. (algorithm 1) Diagnostic Approach At presentation, a detailed history and physical examination should be done, as well as a complete laboratory, microbiologic and imaging work-up for all febrile neutropenic patients. The table below summarizes the diagnostic approach to patients with febrile neutropenia.

The Grange :: essays research papers

The Grange The Grange was the first major farm organization and began in the 1860's. This organization was created mostly as a social and self-help association not originally an organization of protest. During the depression of 1873, this group of bonded friends, became an "agency for political change." They knew in ordered to help themselves they must become a voice in this new government in order to survive. With the depression farm product prices began to decrease. More farms joined the Grange to band together to resolve the issues before them. Beginning as a small group of friends learning from each other what worked and what didn't, by 1875 the Grange boasted of over 800,000 members and 20,000 local lodges; claiming chapters in almost every state, being the strongest in the states that produced the most: the South and Midwest. As a group (strong in member) they made their statement to the world on an appropriate day, Independence Day 1873. The framers Declaration of Independence informed those listening they were ready to fight back. The Declaration stated they would use "all lawful and peaceful means to free themselves from the tyranny of monopoly". Many of the members opened stores and other businesses so they could begin to buy and sell to each other. However most of these were farmers, with families, not businessmen and many companies didn't survive because of their lack of real business knowledge and the pressures of the middlemen who wanted them to fail. They worked as a team to get candidates elected who agreed with the need for governmental control of the railroads. With the control of the Legislatures they implemented governmental controls on railroad rates and practices. However the railroad was also very wealthy. They hired lawyers who soon destroyed the new regulations. With these defeats and with the new rise in farm prices in the late 1870's the Grange began to lose strength and power, dwindling to a membership to only 100,000 by 1880. The Grange was the springboard for another banding together of farmers, the Farmers Alliances. This new movement began in the Southern states and quickly spread beyond what the Grange had been. One of the most notable differences within the Alliance, was the approval of women to vote and become speakers and leaders for their cause. The Alliance however, had similar problems as the Grange. Many of the cooperations, stores, banks, processing plants and other resources began to suffer the same fate. Lack of solid management and the market forces operating against them caused them to fail. These disappointments aided the forming of a national political organization.

Effects of the Media on the California Recall Election :: Essays Papers

Effects of the Media on the California Recall Election What the Recall Election Means for the Presidential Election From rags to riches, Conan to the Terminator, actor to governor, Arnold Schwarzenegger has lived a very adventurous life recently turning into the political realm. Now, as the governor of California, Schwarzenegger has a tremendous task on his hands. California is currently experiencing a crisis in its budget and economy as well as an energy problem. These issues and others were the reason Republicans pushed for a vote to have an election to possibly recall the former governor Gray Davis. Many factors contributed to the way Californians voted. Some of these factors were the media, name recognition, the other candidates, the local situation, the national situation, and much more. In this paper I will attempt to answer why and how some of these factors had such a huge effect on the recall election. I will especially look into the mechanics of the media the way this influenced the election. I will then use this examination of the California recall election to try to come to some conclusions and offer further speculation about how Americans will vote in the 2004 presidential election. Reasons For Recall Some people will say that the special recall election was a populist uprising against a leader who was ineffective. They say that the recall is an example of democracy at its best, proof that government works for the people and that the ultimate power rests in the hands of the citizens. Other people do not believe the recall was anything so noble. They see it as a dirty tactic waged by a few political extremists, and that it actually dealt a blow to democracy in California. The true reason for the recall was in fact probably somewhere in between. The recall was pioneered by a handful of conservatives that decided to take a chance and try to use the large power given to the California electorate to their advantage. They believed that even though Gray Davis had been re-elected just a few months before, there was enough dissatisfaction with his job performance to potentially remove him from office. They started collecting signatures. By the early summer of 2003, it became clear that they were going to succeed in getting the necessary signatures to mandate a special election and give voters the opportunity to recall the sitting governor.

Data Compression :: essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬ËœData Compression’ just sounds complicated. Don’t be afraid, compression is our good friend for many reasons. It saves hard drive space. It makes data files to handle. It also cuts those immense file download times from the Internet. Wouldn’t it be nice if we could compress all files down to just a few bytes?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is a limit to how much you can compress a file. How random the file is, is the determining factor to how far it can be compressed. If the file is completely random and no pattern can be found, then the shortest representation of the file is the file it self. The actual proof that proves this is at the end of my paper. The key to compressing a file is to find some sort of exploitable pattern. Most of this paper will be explaining those patterns that are commonly used.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Null suppression is the most primitive form of data compression that I could find. Basically, it says that if you have different fields that data is in (possibly a spread sheet), and any of them have only zeros in them, then the program just eliminates the data and goes straight from the empty data set to the next.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Only one step up from null suppression is Run Length Encoding. Run length encoding simply tells you how many of what you have in a row. It would change a set of binary data like {0011100001} into what the computer reads as (2)zeros, (3)ones, (4)zeros, 1. As you can see, it works on the same basic idea of finding a series of 0’s (null suppression) and 1’s in this case too and abbreviating them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Once the whole idea of data compression caught on, more people started working on programs for it. From these people we got some new premises to work with. Substitutional encoding is a big one. It was invented jointly by two people: Abraham Lempel and Jakob Ziv. Most compression algorithms (big word meaning roughly ‘program’) using substitutional encoding start with ‘LZ’ for Lempel-Ziv.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  LZ-77 is a really neat compression in which the program starts off just copying the source file over to the new target file, but when it recognizes a phrase of data that it has previously written, it replaces the second set of data in the target file with directions on how to get to the first occurrence of it and copy it in the directions’ place. This is more commonly called a sliding-window compression because the focus of the program is always sliding all around the file.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  LZ-78 is the compression that most people have in their homes.

Frizza †Frozen Pizza Marketing Plan Essay

The current size of pizza market in India is INR 1750 crores and is growing at the rate of 25-30% per year. But there is almost no presence of the frozen pizza in India. Contrasting this to the USA where frozen pizza industry accounts for 13.6% of total USD 40 billion pizza industry. Thus there exists an opportunity to launch a product in this area. In this report, we are trying to achieve the following: market research to gauge consumer behaviour and preferences, followed by Segmentation, Targeting and Positioning for frozen pizza product in India and finally building a marketing strategy to launch it. We started with the Porter’s Five Forces analysis. We found out that Intensity of Industry Competition was low to medium, Availability of Substitutes was low to medium, Potential Entrants were High, Buyer Power was low and Supplier Power was low-medium. This was followed by primary research where we took surveys (online and live). This was supplemented with secondary research to find out the various aspects of consumer behaviour. The core benefits were identified as â€Å"Easy to Cook† and â€Å"Tasty Food†. Generally, the decision makers are the young earning professionals or the earning member of the family/housewife. In case of the housewife, their decisions are normally influenced by their pestering children. We then did market segmentation basis various methods like customer characteristics (geographic, demographic, socio economic, psychographic), buying situation (consumption rate, consumer predispositions), mediagraphics and personas. We decided to target people in age group of more than 23 years of age with earnings of more than 2 lakhs per annum. We thus positioned our product as – To all those who want a comfortable life and who love good & healthy food, Frizza is a unique looking product that lets you enjoy the taste of heaven, saves your time and is there for you – Anytime you want it. The product was named as â€Å"Frizza† with the tagline – â€Å"Anytime Pizza†. We then decided the marketing strategy. Starting with Product decision, we saw that Frizza is differentiated from its competitors like Dominos basis 4 main parameters – (i) Lower price at same taste; (ii) Convenience factor (of using the product anytime rather than just 12 hours during which a restaurant is open); (iii) Square shape rather than circular shape, which would appeal to children and adults alike; (iv) Emotional satisfaction for mothers coming out of the feeling that she has cooked a meal for her children. We then decided various characteristics of the product like toppings, etc. basis results from the survey. Due to many reasons as explained in the report, the pricing came to as 30-40% lower than that of competition like Dominos’s. In terms of the place, we decided to launch the product only in cities given the infrastructural constraints at the beginning. The retail channels were decided as supermarkets, speciality stores and super stores, thus following the selective distribution strategy. Various promotional activities (both ATL and BTL) like television ads, Facebook, newspapers, events, etc. were planned. Finally, financial analysis was done to conclude the breakeven point as 7 quarters. MOTIVATION: The pizza industry in India is mainly divided into 2 formats – dine in and take away. The current size of pizza market in India is INR 1750 crores and is growing at the rate of 25-30% per year. The holding company of the current market leader, i.e. Dominos grew 9 times from INR 155 crores in 2007 to INR 1407 crores in 2013 brining the annual growth rate to an amazing figure of 45%. But there are gaps in the market. First, the pizza stores are limited in number, reach and timing. Thus accessibility is limited. Secondly, although pizzas at lower price points are available, higher end pizzas or pizzas offering variety of toppings cost upward of INR 200 per pizza. Thus, there is scope to use low pricing as a competitive advantage. Hence comes the frozen concept to fulfil the existing gaps. This concept is already prevalent in developed countries. In USA for example, frozen pizza industry accounts for 13.6% of total USD 40 billion pizza industry. As per Frozen food global industry guide from Market Line, sale of frozen pizza & ready meal market globally account for 41.1% of overall frozen food market. Also, Asia-Pacific is the largest market for frozen foods, accounting for 34.3% of global market value, and supermarkets and hypermarkets form the leading distribution channel for frozen food account for 70.2% of the market’s value. OBJECTIVE: In this report, we are trying to achieve the following: market research to gauge consumer behaviour and preferences, followed by Segmentation, Targeting and Positioning for frozen pizza product in India and finally building a marketing strategy to launch it. METHODOLOGY: Primary research: We had two kinds of approach towards primary research. We prepared a comprehensive questionnaire to gauge the demographic, socio-economic & psychographic traits and market reaction towards the existing products and willingness to pay of respondents for the frozen pizza product. We conducted live surveys in the nearby malls (Gopalan Mall and Meenakshi Mall) during peak days (a Sunday and the Independence Day) by distribution of questionnaire among people of different age, gender and income groups for example college goers, mothers, single men, married couples etc. We also collected online responses across diverse geographic and professional groups via social networking sites and emails. Secondary research: We used online resources to study the global frozen pizza markets and potential growth of the same in Indian markets and to gather information about the existing players and their positioning. FINDINGS: 1. Porter’s Five Forces to Understand Industry Competitiveness: Intensity of Industry Competition: Low-Medium ï‚ · Number of firms- There are large no of players in Indian Pizza market. These include the market leader Dominos, Pizza hut, Papa john’s, Pizza corner, Pizza Express, Smoking Joes, Amul and Local Pizza Producers. But there is no popular brand in frozen Pizza other than Amul. ï‚ · Highly concentrated market (Low HHI)- The market is highly concentrated with high HHI of approx 4700.Dominos leads the market with 67% market share with its 600+ stores. Pizza hut is second with around 20% market share and 180 + stores. Others have market share from 2-5% with 20-40 Stores. Share of Amul is very low. ï‚ · Demand Supply mismatch- As per our estimates; there is clearly no supply in the market, although there seems to be strong demand. Availability of Substitutes: Low-Medium ï‚ · Buyer propensity to substitute –Though overall competition is high, Competitors in the frozen pizza market segment are low; therefore buyer propensity to substitute is very low. ï‚ · Product differentiation & Pricing- The products offered by most of the Pizza producers are similar and there is no differentiation in product currently. The number of products available at comparatively lower prices is less. Potential Entrants: High ï‚ · Attractive Market-Indian quick service restaurant industry is estimated to be 6000 Cr and is expected to reach 18000 Cr by 2018. The pizza industry is expected to grow at a CAGR 25-28%. ï‚ · Low Entry Barriers and low exit barriers- The capital requirement is comparable to other product providers in the market and is not massive in any way. Even the exit barriers are less. ï‚ · Big brands-Big global brands like Papa Murphy, Little Caesers are not in India yet and there is potential threat of them Entering India. McCain though not in frozen Pizzas, may enter in the future. Buyer Power: Low ï‚ · Uniqueness- Frozen Pizza is still a unique concept in India and the firms providing it are also less. ï‚ · Large no. of buyers –The large no of Buyers with very few suppliers of frozen Pizza, decreases the bargaining power of buyer. ï‚ · Switching cost- The current pricing structure of big brands which is very similar also decreases the power of consumers, forcing them to buy from the available options. Supplier Power: Low-Medium ï‚ · Material Suppliers- There is large number of suppliers for ingredients like flour, vegetables, etc. The suppliers for Cheese and imported vegetables are less and so they have more power. ï‚ · In-house technology-The technology used by most of the Pizza Manufacturer is in-house, which reduces supplier’s negotiation power. Amul Frozen Pizza: Foreseeing the growth of the frozen food market in India, Amul launched frozen pizza in 2001 in Gujarat. It planned to introduce the product all over India through its already existing channel. But it failed to capture the market and had to close the product category soon. It could not adapt to the changes that the Indian quick restaurant and the Pizza market were undergoing in that period. The pricing of Amul Pizza was Rs 45 for a small Pizza which was very high at that time. Also, the product was not positioned well in the market and proper segmentation was not done. But recently, Amul has re-launched its frozen pizza product. 2. Consumer Behaviour: Primary market research: We received 161 responses (43 offline & 118 online responses) for our survey. The survey data was then filtered based on our target segment (discussed later) – Employed/Earning member of the family in the age group of 24-41 with more than 2 lakh/annum salary of household. Thus, 83 of our respondents fell under our target market. Core values & Benefits sought by the consumers: Based on our survey, we came to know that, 27% consumers take pizza, whenever they feel ‘Too lazy to cook’, and 40% take pizza for ‘Lunch or Dinner’. The core benefits thus are â€Å"Easy to Cook† and â€Å"Tasty Food†. Hence our product must be designed to satisfy these core benefits. In addition to this, following are the results for various factors as rated by the respondents. These are on a scale of 1 to 5 with 1 as least important and 5 as most important. Decision Making Unit: Based on our primary market research, it is evident that 55% of our customers who are in the age group of 24-41 are variety-lovers and they used to try latest trends & products. Generally, the earning member of the family or the housewife makes the purchase decision. But their decisions are normally influenced by their pestering children. Decision Making: The taste and variety of the food forms the basic evaluation criteria for the purchase decision. Majority of the respondents are passive in information search. And, out of various medium of information, people preferred to spend time on TV and the list is followed by the social networking sites. 3. Segmentation, Targeting, Positioning: Segmentation: Market research results helped in identifying the market segments. We will use below three broad bases on which we will identify our target market. (a) Based on Customer Characteristic: Geographic: We expect large no. of customers to come mainly from metro cities in India. Based on our survey, we see less familiarity with the frozen pizza product in Bangalore despite it being one of the biggest cities in India. We expect the situation to be much worse in smaller cities. Ever had Frozen Pizza before? Disinterested Demographic: The general market segment can be divided in younger generation with an age group between 12-23 years, Mid-age working people who can spend money on high quality frozen pizzas with their high disposable income and 35+ women mothers who make the Pizza purchase decision for their kids. Socioeconomic: We can target SEC middle segment of B2&C along with upper segment of A2&B1. Psychographic: Based on VALS framework, we have identified 3 major segments (out of 8) as following: ï‚ · Strivers – They are resource constrained people with high elasticity of demand, who like variety in general and would be keen to try new products offered at an attractive price. ï‚ · Achievers – This segment has goal-oriented people with a deep commitment to career. They are looking for timesaving alternatives in marketplace. ï‚ · Believers – They are conservative, conventional people with established routine and exhibit high brand loyalty. They are predictable and favor familiar brands. (b) Based on Buying Situation: Consumption Behavior/Usage Rate: Through the survey we identified people with varying consumption frequency of pizza from weekly to monthly. The typical 80/20 rule where 80% of firms sales are obtained from 20% of customers, doesn’t apply in our context. Consumer Predispositions/Product knowledge & Attitude: Some of the non-earning teenagers show willingness to pay a higher price and ability to afford high discretionary expenses. There is another segment with an indifferent attitude towards the product. (c) Based on Mediagraphics: It is a new term in marketing literature describing media viewing habits of customers. It helps identify type of promotional media consumer prefers. (TV, radio, internet etc.) SOCIAL NETWORKING (d) Personas: Basis the above inputs, we made the following personasAnjali (16): College-going student who lives with her parents and spends most of the time with her college friends. She has a large circle of girl friends with a very busy social life. She doesn’t have a strong brand loyalty and currently consumes pizza from all available major brands by taking turns. She is also very active on social networking sites. Rahul (27): Rahul is an unmarried IT engineer. His work life is very hectic and often eats out or gets food delivered at home. He lives in an apartment and is earning reasonably well. He spends lot of time on Internet but doesn’t have a very busy social life, virtual or otherwise. He is bit health conscious and when it comes about Pizza, he largely sticks with Dominos as his preferred brand. He likes their speedy delivery and ease of ordering. Mrs. Bhargav (40): Mrs. Bhargav is a working mother who has a 9 to 5 job. She has two kids less than 10 years of age. She earns well for herself and often buys pizza for her kids depending as and when they insist. She doesn’t use Internet match but follows some TV programs very closely. Because of her workload, she often gets tired after coming back from office and doesn’t like idea of home cooked fullfledged meal every day. Targeting: Criteria while picking target segmentCriteria

How effective is the Prologue Essay

In my opinion, the prologue is a striking and extremely effective introduction to one of the greatest tragedies ever written. One of the most unusual things about the Prologue is its structure; the fact that it is written in the sonnet form is very significant. The sonnet form of poetry is perhaps the most demanding and challenging poetic form that exists. For hundreds of years the sonnet (of which Shakespeare wrote 154) has been recognised as a structure that is only attempted by the greatest of poets such as Shakespeare or Wordsworth. It is often associated with love poetry and the fact that Shakespeare chooses the sonnet format to open Romeo and Juliet suggests his motive to prepare the audience with the love story to come. The sonnet is made up from 3 quatrains each consisting of 4 lines, with the rhyme scheme a,b,a,b, each quatrain telling us something different about the forthcoming play. The sonnet is finished by a rhyming couplet- a pair of lines that have the rhyming scheme c,c. Some might question why Shakespeare chose such a difficult poetic structure to open the play however it is clear to me that he chose the sonnet to grab the audience’s attention but also to demonstrate his showcase of literary talent. The sonnet reveals to the audience the degree of Shakespeare’s poetic genius to create a language – which in all its diversity can capture the most beautiful love story of all time. The first quatrain explains the background and setting to the play, explaining that the play is set in Verona, Italy. Shakespeare chose Italy as the setting for a number of his plays; although it is thought that he never actually travelled to the country, it was regarded in Elizabethan times to be a country of wealth and romance. It is entirely fitting that an immortal tragedy should take as its backdrop ‘fair Verona’ (line 2 Prologue) in one of the homes of classical civilisation. In Elizabethan times Italy was thought of as a country full of sexual and social intrigue; where often men fell in love with wealthy heiresses. The Nurse’s observation to Romeo, ‘he that can lay hold of here / Shall have the chinks’ (Act1 Scene 2 lines 116-117) suggests a common motive for love at that time. In the first line of the prologue, we are told that the house of Montague and Capulet are ‘both alike in dignity’, meaning that they both have equal yet important stature within Verona. It is significant that Shakespeare chose to base the plot of the play around two affluent families, proving that the greatest of tragedies can still occur within aristocratic families with the greatest wealth. We are not only told that there is nothing to choose between the families but also that there is only one heir of each household, creating a balance within the play but also an idea of opposites. In line three of the Prologue, Shakespeare explains to the audience that there is an ‘ancient grudge’ between the houses. We are told that this feud has been apparent for so many years that it is now self-perpetuating and of the cause no-one is really sure. In Act 1 Scene 1 line 80, the Prince exclaims that the feud has been ‘bred of an airy word’, meaning that the everlasting hostility between the two houses has no remembered cause. However Shakespeare catches the audience’s attention and creates suspense by using the phrase, ‘break to new mutiny’. We are warned of a new more violent generation of Montagues and Capulets who are willing to kill and take the quarrel to a different more violent level. This ‘new mutiny’ is definitely exacerbated by Tybalt – an aggressive, vindictive youth of the Capulet house who says (Act 1 Scene 1 line 61), ‘†¦peace? I hate the word, As I hate hell, all Montagues, and thee. ‘ Tybalt is described as ‘fier’ and a ‘Prince of Cats’, all implying his volatile and fearsome temper. He represents the ugliness that lies below the divided society in Verona but also is determined to keep it that way. In the forth line of the Prologue, the audience are informed about the civil side of the brawl, ‘Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean’. This phrase is important for it demonstrates the vast scale of the grudge – even the citizens of Verona are now becoming involved. In Act 1 Scene 1, the Prince calls the Montagues and Capulets, ‘Profaners of this neighbour-stained steel’ as their swords are stained with the blood of their innocent neighbours who have no reason to become involved in the conflict. However it is clear that the two houses will not end the feud until the Lords of the households condemn the fighting (which they clearly do not do). In Act 1 Scene1 there is a public scuffle and Capulet exclaims, ‘Give me my long sword’ and likewise Montague shouts, ‘thou villain Capulet!†¦let me go. ‘ The elder generation of Montagues and Capulets constantly fuel the feud and encourage it by setting a poor example. In the second quatrain, Shakespeare tells the audience about the lovers. We are told that they are from â€Å"fatal loins†- signifying death and already indicating their tragic fate. The idea of fate is one which Shakespeare experiments on throughout the whole play. Within the Prologue, we are given an interesting glimpse of the experiment Shakespeare conducts with destiny and fate. The audience are told that the lovers are â€Å"star-crossed† which not only indicates their catastrophic fate but speaks of the fact that the lovers were destined to acquire it. The next part of the Prologue is often puzzling for Shakespeare tells the audience that the lovers are going to die – some might say he is ‘letting the cat out of the bag’. However the knowledge that the lovers ‘misadventured piteous overthrows doth with their death bury their parents strife’ adds pathos to our view of events and the audience is allowed an overview of the lover’s actions. We see Romeo and Juliet struggling to attain happiness and know that they are always doomed to fail. In the play, we are presented with Romeo in a way that makes us believe that he is always a victim of fate. Friar Lawrence, whose role in the play is to try to unite the feuding families by strategically marrying Romeo and Juliet (thereby bringing peace to the streets of Verona) tells Romeo that he is, â€Å"wedded to calamity†. This again emphasises the strong prominence of fortune in the play, which Shakespeare cleverly gives us a taster of in the Prologue by calling the lovers â€Å"star-crossed† and their parents’ loins â€Å"fatal†. In Act 3 Scene 1, Romeo proclaims that he is ‘fortune’s fool’ and also puts himself in the hands of fate in Act 1 Scene5 by saying, â€Å"He that hath the steerage of my course, direct my sail! † Again Shakespeare presents to the audience the idea of fate and that it is almost leading Romeo in the wrong way. However later in the play we see a defiant Romeo who has learn of Juliet’s death and attempts to defy his destiny by exclaiming (Act 5 Scene1), â€Å"I defy you stars†. Nevertheless we are told that a consequence of the deaths of the two lovers will be that they will â€Å"bury their parents’ strife†. This means that by the end of the play the feud between the families will have been resolved. We definitely see this new family alliance at the end of the play for Lord Montague and Lord Capulet shake hands and Lord Capulet expresses his sorrow saying, â€Å"O brother Montague, give me your hand†. The shaking of hands signals the end of the feud, securing what the Friar had always sought to achieve, ‘To turn (their) households’ rancour to pure love’ (Act 2 Scene3). Fate itself is seen to be the result of divine workings: as the play nears its conclusion, Friar Lawrence reports that he has begged Juliet to leave the vault and ‘bear this work of heaven with patience’ (Act 5 Scene3) , whilst the Price echoes the sentiment in his final rebuke to the families that ‘heaven finds means to kill your joys with love’ (Act 5 Scene3). In Act 5 Scene 3, the Friar says that â€Å"A greater power than we can contradict hath thwarted our intents† – meaning that God had already decided that the cruel fate of the lovers. Yet again, there is a strong emphasis of fate and destiny but also of religion. It is not surprising that Shakespeare was so fascinated with the idea of fate – for he lived in a time of little scientific discovery in which religion ‘filled in’ any gaps of knowledge. In a wider sense, the play may be viewed as a dramatic representation of the perpetual conflict between love and hatred which enmeshes a pair of unfortunate lovers. However, also evident at the end of the play is the Christian concept of dying for ones sins – Romeo and Juliet are sacrificed to end the constantly intensifying feud between the two families. We are next presented with the third quatrain, in which Shakespeare overviews the plot of the play to come. The chorus explains to the audience that they will see how the lovers meet, love and die in the play, â€Å"The fearful passage of their death-marked love†¦ † He again speaks of the evitable sacrifice of the lovers’ lives in order to end their parents’ strife, â€Å"and the continuance of their parents’ rage, which but their children’s end nought could remove†. In this quatrain we also see the practical side of Shakespeare who tells the audience that the play is two hours long, â€Å"is now the two hours’ traffic of our stage†. The completion of the sonnet form is in the presence of the final rhyming couplet; which in this case tells the audience to listen to the forthcoming play if they missed any of the Prologue. It is a simple yet self-explanatory rhyming couplet, which speaks of the actors jobs as to â€Å"strive to mend† what the audience has missed – thus telling one of the most beautiful love stories of all time, Romeo and Juliet.